Creativity and the Rule of Thirds

This article is based on "Creativity and the Rule of Thirds" by Jim Altengarten. Jim Altengarten is the owner of exposure36 Photography that specializes in landscape photography, creative vision, and photographic education. Jim teaches classes every quarter at the Experimental College of the University of Washington. Topics include Basic and Intermediate Photography, Composition, Exposure, Macro Equipment, and the Canon EOS Camera System. He also teaches workshops at prime locations in the western United States--such as Death Valley, Yosemite, The Grand Tetons, and The Palouse wheat fields. Please check the exposure36 Photography website for information about classes and workshops < http://www.exposure36.com/>. He entertains e-mails at info@exposure36.com.

I firmly believe that for any visual communication to be effective, the communicator must be able to create images that possess both strength and clarity. When either of these qualities is lacking, the viewer is likely to lose interest. However, before a communicator can begin to craft meaningful visuals, they must first have something to say—and before they can say anything, they must be deeply aware of the world around them.

All effective communicators have a unique perspective on the world. This awareness and perception are vital not only for the creator but also for the viewer, who interprets the meaning of a visual message through their own cultural lens.

In this context, I draw upon Aldous Huxley’s concept of the visual process. For both the communicator and the viewer, processing a visual on a higher cognitive level—beyond simply sensing and selecting—requires intentional focus. One must look at subjects within a visual field with the purpose of finding meaning, not merely to observe. While it’s possible to mentally register something new or surprising, deeper analysis of a visual helps ensure that its meaning resonates. When an image holds significance for the viewer, it becomes part of their long-term memory. As the American philosopher Henry David Thoreau aptly put it, “The question is not what you look at, but what you see.”

This leads us to an important chain: the more you know, the more you sense; the more you sense, the more you select; the more you select, the more you perceive; the more you perceive, the more you remember; the more you remember, the more you learn; and the more you learn, the more you know.

This article explores the Rule of Thirds as a tool to enhance the strength and clarity of visual communication. It also delves into additional strategies for using this compositional principle to spark creativity. Always remember: composition exists within a context—the frame—which is itself a core element of image-making. The aim here is to help you identify your subject, emphasize it effectively, and guide the viewer’s eye through the visual in a purposeful and aesthetically engaging manner.

Design Principles: Design principles are foundational concepts that guide the organization and arrangement of visual elements within a composition. The way these principles are applied plays a crucial role in shaping the expressive content—the message—of a piece of work. In essence, they function as the visual grammar of art. Just as language enables us to communicate through words, design principles allow us to communicate through images. When children learn to draw or paint, they are learning to read and write in the language of vision. As they begin to make intentional visual choices and express ideas in their own style, they evolve into what might be called visual poets—capable of conveying mood, meaning, and emotion through form.

Far from restricting creativity, design principles provide a flexible framework that supports creative exploration. They offer structure, helping artists make purposeful choices rather than arbitrary ones. Just as rules in writing don’t hinder great literature but enhance it, design principles enhance the effectiveness of visual communication.

Strength: One key principle is strength, which refers to an image’s capacity to immediately attract and engage the viewer. In today’s fast-paced visual culture, where attention spans are short, the ability to make an instant impact is vital. If an image fails to connect quickly, it risks being overlooked. Strength often arises through emphasis, also known as the center of interest. This involves establishing a dominant focal point—typically placed slightly off-center—and supporting it with secondary elements to create balance and maintain interest. However, some artists intentionally reject traditional emphasis, preferring a democratic visual field where all elements hold equal weight.

Harmony: Another essential contributor to strength is visual harmony. It involves the thoughtful arrangement of elements in a way that feels visually cohesive and pleasing. Harmony gives the composition a sense of order and rhythm. Conversely, opposition—the use of contrast—can be employed to great effect by introducing visual tension. Contrast between light and dark, texture and smoothness, or static and dynamic forms can create drama and emotional depth. A vivid example is found in the desert landscapes of Rajasthan, where the vast, open skies become powerfully expressive when juxtaposed with dense, brooding monsoon clouds.

In short, without strength, an image may fail to hold the viewer’s attention long enough for them to explore its subtleties. But strength alone is not enough—it must be paired with clarity.

Clarity refers to the image’s ability to sustain interest and guide the viewer through a meaningful visual journey. It enables the viewer to explore the composition while remaining anchored to its central message or emotional tone. Clarity is achieved by providing visual pathways—deliberate compositional choices that direct the viewer’s eye across the image and return it to the focal point. These pathways can be created through lines, shapes, repetition, or color.

At the heart of clarity lies the principle of unity—the sense that all elements within the composition are working together harmoniously. When unity is achieved, nothing feels out of place or distracting. However, unity without variation can quickly become dull. It’s like driving for hours through a flat, unchanging landscape—it’s cohesive, but uninspiring. The key is to balance unity with diversity. This balance keeps the viewer engaged, offering points of interest and contrast while maintaining an overarching coherence. In this way, visual unity mirrors the richness of human experience—where harmony and variation coexist.

That said, simplicity can be powerful too. A minimalist composition—when executed with intention—can evoke deep emotion or contemplation. A single, well-placed element within a vast, uncluttered space can speak volumes, proving that clarity doesn’t always require complexity.

Ultimately, effective composition depends on the artist’s or designer’s awareness and intention. Whether through photography, painting, graphic design, or other visual media, the creator must consciously assess all the pictorial elements in the frame. From there, they must make deliberate choices—selecting, emphasizing, and arranging those elements in just the right proportions to form a coherent and compelling visual statement.

Simplicity: Finally, it’s essential to understand that simplicity is the cornerstone of most successful photographs and visuals. The simpler and more direct an image, the stronger and clearer its visual message. Simplicity helps eliminate confusion, focus attention, and create visual impact—qualities that are critical in any form of visual communication.

There are several key considerations when striving for simplicity in photography:

1. Choose a Subject That Encourages Simplicity: Begin by selecting a subject that naturally lends itself to a clean, uncluttered composition. Instead of attempting to capture an entire scene or area, which may overwhelm or confuse the viewer, focus in on a key element that tells the story. Isolate what is essential. For instance, rather than photographing a crowded street, you might zoom in on a single figure, gesture, or object that encapsulates the spirit of the environment.

2. Explore Multiple Viewpoints: Don't settle for the first angle that presents itself. Move around the scene or object with intention. Look through the viewfinder and carefully examine the foreground and background. Try shooting from different heights—above, below, or at eye level. Each angle presents a unique visual relationship between the subject and its surroundings. Evaluate these perspectives critically, and only press the shutter when you’ve found the composition that best supports your subject and story.

3. Control the Background and Foreground: A strong photograph allows the viewer’s eye to enter the image easily and remain focused on the subject. This means eliminating anything in the background that could distract from the main point of interest. Similarly, check the foreground for any elements that might obstruct or confuse the viewer’s gaze. Always be mindful of visual clutter. Simplicity is not achieved merely by removing objects—it involves composing the frame so that every visible element serves a clear purpose.

4. Tell One Clear Story: Perhaps the most important principle of simplicity is this: tell only one story per picture. A powerful photograph conveys a singular idea or emotion. While supporting details may exist, they should never compete with or overpower the central subject. The subject is the reason the photograph is being made, and everything else in the frame should reinforce or complement it. If secondary elements draw more attention than the primary object, the visual message becomes diluted or lost.

5. Eliminate Distractions and Competing Elements: Avoid scenes filled with confusing lines, conflicting shapes, or overly complex arrangements. These can cause the viewer’s eye to wander aimlessly, unsure of what to focus on. Choose a viewpoint that simplifies the composition—one that eliminates visual noise and ensures that the principal subject is immediately recognizable. A viewer should be able to understand what the image is about at a glance.

6. Use Depth of Field to Isolate Your Subject: If you’re unable to frame your subject cleanly due to unavoidable background elements, use depth of field as a compositional tool. A shallow depth of field (achieved with a wide aperture) can blur distracting backgrounds, allowing your subject to stand out with clarity and purpose. This technique is especially useful in portraiture, wildlife, and close-up photography where environmental elements can’t be entirely controlled.

To summarize, it’s essential to understand that simplicity in photography is not about minimalism for its own sake, but about crafting a visual message that is clear, focused, and emotionally resonant. A simple photograph does not lack complexity or meaning; rather, it offers a direct and unobstructed path for the viewer’s eye and mind to engage with the subject. Simplicity allows the image to speak powerfully without being drowned in visual noise.

Consider, for example, Steve McCurry’s iconic portrait of the Afghan Girl. The image is visually simple—just a close-up of a girl’s face against a plain, muted background—but every element, from the vivid green of her eyes to the worn red of her shawl, works in harmony to support a single emotional narrative. There are no distractions, no unnecessary details. The result is an image that is unforgettable and deeply human.

When used intentionally, simplicity becomes one of the most powerful tools in a photographer’s visual language. It ensures that the message is not only seen—but felt.

Consider, for example, a photograph of a coyote in the wild. If the frame is cluttered with trees, rocks, or man-made objects, the impact of the image diminishes. But if the coyote is isolated—either through framing, depth of field, or careful selection of the background—the message becomes immediate and powerful. The viewer knows what to look at and why.Finally, please do understand that it is ‘Simplicity’ which is the key to most good pictures and visuals of any form. The simpler and more direct a picture, the clearer and stronger is the resulting statement. There are several things to be considered when we discuss simplicity. First, select a subject that lends itself to a simple arrangement; for example, instead of photographing an entire area that would confuse the viewer, frame in on some important element within the area. Second, select different viewpoints or camera angles. Move around the scene or object being photographed. View the scene through the camera viewfinder. Look at the foreground and background. Try high and low angles as well as normal eye-level viewpoints. Evaluate each view and angle. Only after considering all possibilities should you take the picture. See beyond and in front of your subject. Be sure there is nothing in the background to distract the viewer's attention from the main point of the picture. Likewise, check to see there is nothing objectionable in the foreground to block the entrance of the human eye into the picture.

A last point of simplicity-tell only one story. Ensure there is only enough material in the picture to convey one single idea. Although, it is hard to compose any picture without numerous small parts and contributing elements, but it should never attract more of the viewer's attention than the primary object of the picture. The primary object is the reason the picture is being made in the first place; therefore, all other elements should merely support and emphasize the main object. Do not allow the scene to be cluttered with confusing elements and lines that detract from the primary point of the picture. Select a viewpoint that eliminates distractions so the principal subject is readily recognized. When numerous lines or shapes are competing for interest with the subject, it is difficult to recognize the primary object or determine why the picture was made. For example, as in the picture of a coyote, be sure that only the things you want the viewer to see appear in the picture. If there are numerous objects cluttering up the background, your message will be lost. If you can’t find an angle or framing to isolate your subject, consider using depth of field control to keep the background out of focus.

Moving forward, a photographer must decide which design principles are most relevant to shaping a compelling image. These principles help guide how visual elements are arranged, influencing how a photograph is perceived and felt. Among the most important design elements is balance, which refers to the distribution of visual weight across the composition. Balance can be symmetric, asymmetric, or radial, and each type contributes to the image’s tone and emotional resonance.

1. Balance: Balance involves evaluating and arranging elements so that no one part of the image overpowers another. It’s essentially a way of comparing the left and right sides—or overall structure—of a composition.

• Symmetrical Balance: In symmetrical balance, both sides of the composition are similar, often appearing mirrored. This type of balance creates a sense of formality, stability, and order. For this reason, it’s sometimes referred to as formal balance.

However, symmetrical balance doesn’t always feel rigid. For example, a butterfly is naturally symmetrical, yet it doesn’t appear stiff or overly structured. Its association with movement, freedom, and transformation softens the formality of its symmetrical design. This illustrates how subject matter and symbolism can override the emotional effects typically associated with a particular compositional style.

• Asymmetrical Balance: Asymmetrical balance occurs when both sides of an image carry similar visual weight, but without mirroring each other. This approach is often more engaging, as it introduces variety, contrast, and tension. It feels more casual, dynamic, and natural, which is why it’s sometimes called informal balance.

For instance, a lone tree on one side of a photo might be visually balanced by a group of smaller shrubs on the opposite side. Although not identical, the elements together create equilibrium and harmony within the frame.

• Radial Balance: Radial balance involves arranging elements around a central point—like the petals of a sunflower or the ornate rose windows of Gothic cathedrals. While less common in everyday photographic composition, radial balance can produce a powerful sense of rhythm and focus.

The sunflower, for example, evokes feelings of warmth and radiance due to its structure. Yet it can also carry more layered meanings—perhaps as a nuisance to a farmer, or as a symbol of aesthetic spirituality in the wake of Vincent van Gogh’s iconic sunflower paintings. After experiencing Van Gogh’s thick, expressive brushstrokes and vibrant textures, even a simple sunflower in the real world can take on spiritual and emotional dimensions. This highlights how composition and cultural context can together shape visual interpretation.

2. Dominant element: Usually there is one main subject to the image. The subject may be either a single object, or a relationship. The principle of dominance makes an aspect of the design the focal point or emphasis. In The Magdalen (see image on the left) with the Smoking Flame by Georges de La Tour, the dominant element is Mary Magdalen’s gaze and meditation due to the use of light radiating from the candle, leaving in darkness the rest of the scene and the nature of the subject, since in a portrait the sitter is usually the dominant element.

3. Eye flow: Elements in the scene that guide the viewer's eye through the entire frame. There are two basic concepts that photographers use when composing their photographs: the first is the Rule of Thirds and the second is “eye flow” which is more difficult to understand because there is no basic starting point. Designers and photographers plan every element in fashion photography to make sure you see what they want you to see. The first question to always ask is: “What am I taking a picture of?” The second question is: “How will the observer view the image?” Contrast contributes to eye flow. Contrast is the ratio between the highlight and shadow areas of an image (see image on the right-above). This is another multiple subject image. Male or female, your eye is drawn to the model's legs and the eye tends to travel upwards to the bright white and horizontal piano keys. The contrast between the piano keys and the deep shadows then forces your eye downward to see the surprise subject hiding under the piano. When taking any photograph, even a candid, always ask yourself the two key questions and you will consider eye flow in creating your composition. When you are planning your composition, you can use strong horizontal or vertical lines to make the eye flow to the subject. Using strong colours is another way to guide the viewer through the image. Our eye travels first to lighter and brighter colours and no matter how hard we try to see the burgundy colour first, our eye is sucked in to the yellow colour. Designers use colour and lighting to make sure the item they are selling stand outs. Nothing aggravates a designer more than when we appreciate the model more than the lipstick!

4. Simplicity: Only what is essential to the scene is included in the final image.

The other important aspect is the application of design elements to create clarity in such familiar applications such as:

o Lines: Lines can be effective elements of composition, because they give structure to your photographs. Lines can unify composition by directing the viewer's eyes and attention to the main point of the picture or lead the eyes from one part of the picture to another. They can lead the eyes to infinity, divide the picture, and create patterns. Through linear perspective, lines can lend a sense of depth to a photograph. (Linear perspective causes receding parallel lines to appear to converge in the picture. This allows you to create an illusion of depth in your pictures.) The viewer's eyes tend to follow lines into the picture (or out of the picture) regardless of whether they are simple linear elements such as fences, roads, and a row of phone poles, or more complex line elements, such as curves, shapes, tones, and colours. Lines that lead the eye or direct attention are referred to as leading lines. A good leading line is one that starts near the bottom corner of the scene and continues unbroken until it reaches the point of interest (see picture on the right). It should end at this point; otherwise, attention is carried beyond the primary subject of the photograph. The apparent direction of lines can often be changed by simply changing viewpoint or camera angle.

o Shapes: Shape is a two-dimensional element basic to picture composition and is usually the first means by which a viewer identifies an object within the picture. Form is the three-dimensional equivalent of shape. Even though shape is only two-dimensional, with the proper application of lighting and tonal range, you can bring out form and give your subjects a three-dimensional quality. Lighting can also subdue or even destroy form by causing dark shadows that may cause several shapes to merge into one. Shapes can be made more dominant by placing them against plain contrasting backgrounds; for example, consider again the white sail against the dark water background. The greatest emphasis of shape is achieved when the shape is silhouetted (see picture on the right), thus eliminating other qualities of the shape, such as texture and roundness, or the illusion of the third dimension.

o Patterns: Creating your pictures around repeating elements or patterns provides picture unity and structure. Pattern repetition

creates rhythm that the eyes enjoy following (fig. 5-15). When lines, shapes, and colours within a picture occur in an orderly way (as in wallpaper), they create patterns that often enhance the attractiveness of photographs. Pattern, like texture, is found almost everywhere. It can be used as the primary subject but is most often used as a subordinate element to enhance composition. When pattern is used as a supporting element, it must be used carefully so it does not confuse or overwhelm the viewer. Pictures that are purely pattern are seldom used, because they tend to be monotonous. Patterns should be used to strengthen and add interest to your subject.

o Textures: Texture helps to emphasize the features and details in a photograph. By capturing "texture" of objects being photographed, you can create form. When people observe a soft, furry object or a smooth, shining surface, they have a strong urge to touch it. You can provide much of the pleasure people get from the feel of touching such objects by rendering texture in your pictures. Texture can be used to give realism and character to a picture and may in itself be the subject of a photograph. When texture is used as a subordinate element within the picture, it lends strength to the main idea in the photograph. It usually takes just a little different lighting or a slight change in camera position to improve the rendering of texture in a picture. When an area in a photograph shows rich texture, the textured area usually creates a form or shape; therefore, it should be considered in planning the photograph (image on the right.

o Colour (Tone): Tone is probably the most intangible element of composition. Tone may consist of shadings from white-to-gray-to-black, or it may consist of darks against lights with little or no greys. The use of dark areas against light areas is a common method of adding the feeling of a third dimension to a two-dimensional black-and-white picture. The interaction of light against dark shades in varying degrees helps to set the mood of a composition. A picture consisting of dark or sombre shades conveys mystery, intrigue, or sadness. When the tones are mostly light and airy, the picture portrays lightness, joy, or airiness.

Finally, there are photographic elements that add strength to the image. These elements include such aspects as:
o Format (portrait or landscape)
o Placement of the main elements
o Lens Selection
o Focusing
o Perspective: The human eye judges distance by the way elements within a scene diminish in size, and the angle at which lines and planes converge. This is called linear perspective. The distance between camera and subject and the lens focal length are critical factors affecting linear perspective. This perspective changes as the camera position or viewpoint changes. From a given position, changing only the lens focal length, and not the camera position, does not change the actual viewpoint, but may change the apparent viewpoint. The use of different focal-length lenses in combination with different lens-to-subject distances helps you alter linear perspective in your pictures. When the focal length of the lens is changed but the lens-to-subject distance remains unchanged, there is a change in the image size of the objects, but no change in perspective. On the other hand, when the lens-to-subject distance and lens focal length are both changed, the relationship between objects is altered and perspective is changed. By using the right combination of camera-to-subject distance and lens focal length, a photographer can create a picture that looks deep or shallow. This feeling of depth or shallowness is only an illusion, but it is an important compositional factor. Using a short-focal-length lens from a close camera-to-subject distance, or viewpoint, produces a picture with greater depth (not to be confused with depth of field) than would be produced with a standard lens. Conversely, using a long-focal-length lens from a more distant viewpoint produces a picture with less apparent depth.

One method of creating strength in an image is to create focal points that draw the viewer's eye to that area. Focal points compel the viewer to look at them first. There are several techniques that create strong focal points. First, the photographer can isolate the subject. Throwing everything in the scene out of focus except for the main subject is one example of this technique. The viewer's eye is attracted to whatever is sharp in the image. The viewer's eye generally will not remain very long in an area that is out of focus. However, when everything is in sharp focus, the image becomes cluttered and won't hold the viewer's attention. Having too many things to look at causes fatigue in the viewer's eye!  

Having a contrast in tone or colour between parts of the image is another method that creates a strong focal point. When you're dividing the image space by tone or colour, it's important to examine how the division occurs. If the image is equally divided between two tones, the viewer becomes confused, because each portion of the image has equal weight. For example, consider the classic sunset image. If the horizon line is placed in the centre of the frame, both the sky and water take up an equal amount of space. The viewer feels uneasy, because the photographer didn't provide any visual clues as to what is most important in the scene. This type of image lacks strength, and the viewer will quickly abandon it. One curative option is to lower the horizon, which places emphasis on the clouds in the sky. Raising the horizon places emphasis on the reflections in the water. Which is best? The photographer must decide whether the sky or water is more attractive. If the photographer can't decide and splits the frame equally, his/her indecisiveness will be apparent to the viewer.

Placement of elements in the frame can also create focal points. Key placement questions to consider include what, how, and where to place elements in the scene. You should articulate what attracts you in the scene. That will dictate what to place in the final image. If the photographer can't articulate what causes his/her personal passion in a scene, passion won't come across to the viewer. How you place something in the image refers to whether the element is fully or partially visible. Showing the entire element increases the attentive values of that element. Partially showing the element decreases the emphasis on that element. When you want to stress the relationship between two elements in the scene, rather than the elements individually, place them partially out of the image or near the edges of the frame. Where to place the main elements in the image is the final consideration for attracting the viewer's attention. The Rule of Thirds is the most common method for determining where to place the main elements. It's based on the concept that the strength of an image improves when the main elements are placed at key locations away from the centre of the frame.

We've been programmed to locate main elements in the centre of the frame. Do you remember when you were a child, and the teacher told you to draw a red flower with your crayon? Where did you place it? You probably began in the centre of the page. Why? There was lots of room there, so you could draw the entire flower. Your first camera was probably of the point-and-shoot variety. The only area that confirmed the subject was in focus was the focus point in the centre of the camera lens. If you can determine focus in the centre of your field of view, isn't it logical to place your subject there? The problem, of course, is that placing the subject in the centre of the frame normally provides little interest for the viewer. The brain is logical. If the brain subconsciously expects to find something in the centre of a picture, and it's located there, no excitement is generated. Placing the subject away from the centre provides visual stimulation.

Rule of Thirds 

Before talking about when it's permissible to break the Rule of Thirds, let's make sure that we understand how it works. Several schools of thought in ancient Greece searched for mathematical formulas for the perfect number, chord, etc. They also searched for perfect balance in their artwork. Renaissance architects and painters continued the search for perfection. They decided that the relationship of five to eight created such balance. Divide the length of the canvas (or picture frame) into eight parts, and at the fifth mark from the left, draw a line from top to bottom. Count five parts, starting from the opposite side, and do the same thing. Draw two lines in the same manner from the width of the frame, and the end result is figure 1 on the left. This is called the Golden Triangle because it represents the perfect division of space. The points where the lines intersect are called power points. Placing your main subject at one of the power points gives it a high attentive value and adds strength to your image. If there's more than one main subject, placing each at a power point provides balance and strength.

It's difficult to visually divide the viewfinder into eight equal parts. Therefore, it's easier to use the Rule of Thirds, which divides the viewfinder into three sections, both horizontally and vertically. As you can see from Figure 2 (see image on right), the Golden Mean is a tighter grouping than the Rule of Thirds. Both methods use the power point concept for placing the main subject(s).

The image below (the rose surrounded by baby's breath) demonstrates locating the subject according to the Rule of Thirds. The placement, as well as the colour contrast, almost requires the viewer's eye to go to the rose first. After stopping at the rose, the eye is free to wander about the rest of the image to explore its content. Therefore, the image has both strength and clarity.

Consider the Rule of Thirds to be the Guidelines of Thirds. If the main subject is always placed at one of four points in the frame, creativity suffers. There are many situations where using the Rule of Thirds will enhance the image. Other situations require more creativity, and that means bending or breaking this rule.

The Rule of Thirds discourages placing an important element in the centre of the frame. However, there are two situations when a centrally placed element works effectively. The first situation arises when there's nothing else in the scene that competes with the main subject. If a flower is in sharp focus and everything else is out of focus, the viewer's eye will go to the flower--no matter where it's placed in the scene. Placing the flower in the centre of the frame works, in this instance, because the flower is a complete subject on its own, and there are no other elements to compete with the flower.

The other situation in which a centrally placed element works occurs when there's a strong sense of balance in the scene. Imagine the hub of a wooden wagon wheel. The hub can be placed in the

centre, because the radiating spokes suggest a strong balance within the scene. Placing a strong horizontal line in the centre of the frame works only when one half of the scene is reflected in the other half. Notice that the image below has a strong horizontal line (tree line) in the centre of the frame. The image works due to the strong sense of balance in the scene. In this case, placing the horizontal line anywhere else in the frame would degrade the image dramatically.

As stated previously, placing the horizon in the centre of the frame can confuse the viewer as to what's important. The underlying structure of the Rule of Thirds allows us to modify the location of the horizon to send a clear message to the viewer. The Rule of Thirds can be used to visually weight an image. Visual weight differs from physical weight. Light colours have less visual weight than dark colours when they fill approximately the same amount of space in the frame. Thus, a large mound of dark feathers appears heavier than a white rabbit of equal size. Also, an element that takes up more physical space in the frame has more visual weight than an element that uses less space.

We can bottom weight an image by placing the top of our visually weighted element along the lower horizontal line of our Rule of Thirds grid. Locating the top of the element below the lower horizontal line places gives it less emphasis. It's up to the photographer to determine how much emphasis should be placed on each element in the scene. The image below is an example of a bottom-weighted image.

Placing the visual weight at the bottom of the image puts emphasis on the upper portions of the image. In the image to the left, it's really the interesting clouds that make the image. The mountains simply provide a sense of place. If the mountains were seen higher in the image, they would detract from the clouds. The image would change and not be as interesting.

We can also top-weight an image by placing it along the upper horizontal line in the Rule of Thirds grid. The two images below are both top-weighted. You probably get a different feel from each of them--even though they're both images of the Grand Tetons taken from the same tripod holes. The difference is that the image on the right has a stronger base. When you build a house, it needs to have a strong foundation to stand.

The same is true with an image. The Grand Tetons have a lot of visual weight. The viewer can easily determine that they are heavy. In contrast, the grassland in the foreground of each image doesn't represent weight. Top-weighting an image without a strong base makes the weighted object appear to be floating on a surface that won't support it. Therefore, the viewer senses something doesn't appear right in the image, even if s/he can't verbalize the problem. The above images are extreme examples. The image on the above left has a weak base because the bottom of the mountains is too high. The image on the right represents moving the bottom of the mountain to an extremely low base. It sends a better message about the solid feel of the image. Probably the best location for the bottom of the mountain would be somewhere between both images.

A weak base is especially obvious in top-weighted images involving water in the foreground. Unless there's some other foreground object, the viewer can feel uncomfortable with nothing but water supporting the mountain, city buildings, or other objects. Place a finger over the bottom third of the image to the left. When you cover the rocks in the foreground, do you get the feeling that the mountain is floating on the water? We know that mountains can't float, so the viewer may feel some negative tension from the image.

In top-weighted images, the photographer must decide whether a top-weighted image is supported by the foreground and how much foreground to include. Although it's your decision, be aware of the concept of base and potential viewer reaction to the shot.

Jim Altengarten used the horizontal grid lines of the Rule of Thirds to create either top or bottom weight in our image. The vertical grid lines can also be used; it's called side-weighting. The image below right is an example of using the left vertical line of the grid to locate the main element of the image. Notice that the small stream of water is placed along the other vertical line in the grid. Placing the main element closer to the edge puts less emphasis on that element. On some occasions, leaving part of the element out of the scene creates an emphasis on the relationship between that element and another element in the scene.

While the main element can be placed on either vertical line, care must be taken to avoid creating negative tension. If there's any action, or implied action, in the scene, the action should normally be located toward the centre of the frame. For example, if the main element of the scene were a bicyclist, the bicycle would move from the edge of the frame toward the centre. If the bicycle were located at either vertical line and appeared to move toward the closer edge of the frame, the viewer might wonder where the bicycle will go once it leaves the frame. This situation is called amputation, because the edge of the frame cuts off the ability of the viewer to follow the anticipated action. Any implied action, such as a person looking out of the frame, can cause the same result.

Counter culture placement of the subject is another way of increasing tension in a photo. In western culture, movement is generally left to right. That's how you're reading this page. If the movement in the scene is from right to left (even though it's moving toward the centre), it can create negative tension for western viewers. The next set of three images shows a wolf looking in different directions. You'll probably receive a different feeling from each of the images--depending on the direction of the wolf's stare. Do any of the images give you a feeling of nervousness or curiosity?

Keep in mind the earlier statement that rigidly following rules discourages creativity. There may be occasions when you want to add negative tension to a scene to create a certain mood. Intentionally creating a feeling of amputation can add mystery. Counter-cultural movement inserts a subtle tension that many people feel but can't verbalize. The question boils down to the photographer being able to say what's important in the scene, and then to create circumstances that will allow the viewer to receive the intended message.

Thus far, we've discussed the Rule of Thirds as a basic model and expanded it into a creative approach for placing the main subject in the frame. The preceding suggestions will add strength and generate viewer attention to your images. The Golden Mean and Rule of Thirds provide a sense of order, balance, and beauty to the image. But is this all we want to say in photography? Using only the Rule of Thirds will eventually create monotonous, boring shots where placement is always the same as regulated by the rule. To maintain viewer interest, you need variety, and that comes from creative placement. Let your creativity be your guide!

Some Useful web resources
http://www.redbubble.com/people/imagery
http://www.southcampusvisualarts.com/english/CH5.HTM
http://www.goshen.edu/art/ed/Compose.htm#task%203
http://www.tv-handbook.com/Composition%20and%20Camera%20Movement.html
http://photoinf.com/General/NAVY/Photographic_composition_Balance.htm

http://www.silverlight.co.uk/tutorials/compose_expose/compose.html

Visual Analysis of Mediated Images

Though a visual may be analysed in many ways, of late a convention has been established to study under Six major schools of thought.

1. The personal perspective deals with an emotional subjective opinion. ‘What do I think of the picture’. It’s the first response or first thought that crosses your mind on viewing the picture. It bears personal bias and prejudices.
2. The historical perspective helps to determine the importance of the work based on the time period that it was created in. ‘When was this created? What was the social setup at that period of time?
3. The technical perspective tries to draw a relation b/w the medium and the message. ‘What medium has been used to create the message? How has the creator expressed himself through the medium chosen.
4. The ethical perspective looks at the moral and ethical responsibilities of the artist. ‘What are the moral responsibilities of the creator? Is his portrayal of the image ethical?
5. The cultural perspective relates the symbols used in the image to the society. ‘What symbols has the creator used? What is the message conveyed by them?
6. The critical perspective is a rational conclusion that the viewer draws from the image. It is a personal reaction though free of bias and prejudice. ‘What have I concluded after critically analyzing the picture? How different was my first opinion from the second?

Aim of Critical analysis: A producer of messages must have an understanding of the culture of the audience and use symbols that are comprehensible by them. It helps a viewer understand, interpret and appreciate art.

List all the Objects and Elements

One must notice all the objects and elements in the picture and draw a distinction between the most important and the less important. The placements of elements gives a sense of movement within the picture hence the positioning of objects must be noted. Centre, left, right, top and bottom. Shadows and lighting suggest what part is in focus and give a sense of depth. The location helps in interpretation of the message. One must categorize the purpose as news, art, personal, or any other.

The List

• 4 girls
• Water
• Old building
• Small boys
• Road

The Composition

Placement of Objects
• Foreground: Girls in centre
• Background: Water + Kids (left) playing
• Background: Brightly lit Building on the right
• Background: High contrast / Darker building behind the boys

The girls in the centre are the subject of the picture. The water in the background seems to be coming from a nearby hose pipe or fire hydrant. The girls seem drenched in water. One can see small boys still playing in the water in the background.

Study visual cues

Shadows and lighting
•Illuminated building on right hand side
•Light source is in front of the girls at an angle above them
•Building behind the boys is in shady region

The light and shadow suggests its little after 15:00 hours. It sets the mood of summer and playful indulgence of kids by drenching themselves. There is a sense of innocence.

Study visual cues...

Colour
•Objective- perception of colour & its characteristics
•Comparative- association of colour with objects, events, emotions
•Subjective- Every different colour has different associations in different cultures and societies.
•The girls dark complexion.
•The light shades worn suggests summer season.
•The dark shades suggests old and shanty town.

Form

The triangle shape of the girls is a dynamic shape. its base gives a sense of stability. They are also in a group and seem like a whole unit.

The buildings give a sense of serenity and form the base for the girls that seem in front of it.

'Eight' depth Cues

Many representational visual texts give a very strong feeling of depth despite the fact that they are painted on flat surfaces that lack any depth.

In trying to depict depth, there are several restrictions on the techniques that an artist can use. First, most visual texts, like paintings, drawings, illustrations, and photographs, are two-dimensional. There is no actual depth in the artwork so one must understand, at least intuitively, what information is in the environment that allow us to perceive depth. These sources of information are commonly called depth or distance cues.

A consequence of the two-dimensional nature of painting and pictures is that we lose all the depth information that comes from the fact that we have two eyes. These binocular, or two-eye, depth cues require true depth and thus we will not discuss them in context with conventional visual texts. For example, there is the binocular depth cue called disparity. Disparity arises from the fact that our two eyes have a slightly different view of the world. To allow you to see disparity requires either real depth or two images developed as if from different positions like our eyes.

The artist, in trying to paint or draw, is, therefore, limited to depth cues that (a) need no more than one eye to work, and (b) do not require a moving world. Fortunately there are a collection of such depth cues, a subset of monocular cues called pictorial cues by some authors (Goldstein, 1989).

1. Interposition
2. Space
3. Size
4. Colour
5. Lighting
6. Textural gradient
7. Time
8. Perspective

1. Interposition

The first depth cue to be discussed here is interposition which is the partial blocking of a more distant object by a nearer object. Note how the the building is blocked by the girls. In fact, if you notice the kid behind the girls on your right is partially blocking the building too. But, it is the girls who land up blocking him too. Thus creating an illusion as to what is in the background and what is in the front. It is the interposition, overlap, that causes the sense of depth to arise. Usually the impression of depth caused by interposition alone is not very strong.

Notice the foreground figures of two girls with partially blocked figures of other two taking a piggy ride, which are all that are important for our present purposes. Here relative size and even relative height play little role in giving the depth order of the various figures (all the figures are roughly the same level and same size). Shadowing plays an important role in giving each of the figures their sense of three-dimensionality, but to tell who is in what position relative to another, the principle cue is interposition.

2. Space

Space is the frame in which an image is located. With a natural scene, the space depends on how close you are to the subject. Standing in an open field gives the feeling of a large amount of space and enhances the feeling of depth. If an object is close to the eyes, depth perception is limited.
Distance is related to space and helps in our perception of depth.

There is a lot of space behind the girls suggesting they are far from the buildings. The water is in the background and the wet girls suggest they had been in the water previously.

3. Size

Size can help create the illusion of the depth perception if the viewer is aware of the object’s actual size. A jumbo jet seen from a distance is a small bird sized object. If someone has no idea what the jumbo jets are, then the viewer does not react to this depth cue. Likewise, in this photograph we can guess average size (both height and size) and average size of two storied building in the backdrop we become aware of the depth (both in terms of space and distance) between the girls (foreground) and the building (background).

Size, consequently, is closely related to our ability to determine an object’s distance. Distance is related to space and helps in our perception of depth.

Size also is related to scale and mental attention. Without knowing an object’s size, we have to view it next to an object of known size in order to determine its size.

4. Colour

Correct interpretation of colour, and especially lighting cues, allows the beholder to determine the shape of objects, and thus their arrangement in space.

The colour of distant objects is also shifted towards the blue end of the spectrum. (e.g. distant mountains.) Painters, notably Cezanne, employ "warm" pigments (red, yellow and orange) to bring features forward towards the viewer, and "cool" ones (blue, violet, and blue-green) to indicate the part of a form that curves away from the picture plane.

High contrast pictures with great differences between light and dark tones seem closer than objects with more neutral tones colour.

5. Lighting

The exact shape and description of the shadows changes depending on the direction of the light. There are certain general rules about shadows.

First, in a place with only one source of light, e.g. outside, the shadows from all the objects in the area all go in the same direction. As a corollary of this rule, it is certainly true for all natural lights, and for most artificial lights, that the light comes from above to some degree. We do not usually experience getting illuminated from the floor.

Second, for a solid object sticking up the side of the object in shadow is the side away from the light but for a hole in the ground, the shadow is on the side near the light.

Shadow can play a very powerful role in defining form by giving the object a three-dimensional feel as in the title to this page. In addition, artists can take good advantage of shadow to define form by highlighting how different portions of an object are at different depths and therefore the object closer to the light will cast a shadow on the more distant object.

Shadow can play a broader role in defining depth between objects since objects that are in shadow must be farther from the light than objects that are not in shadow.

Differences in light intensities can communicate depth. Carefully crafted lighting design provides subject’s separation from background. If brightness level of the back light is slightly higher than the lights in front then this separation is more distinct. However, no backlight has been used in this photograph. Yet, the prevalence of shadows (largely in mid-space of the picture plane and the shows of the subject indicate subject’s volume and provides the viewer with reasonable illusion of depth perspective.

6.Textural gradient

Related in a sense to relative size but a depth cue in its own right is what has been termed texture gradient. Most surfaces, such as walls and roads and a field of flowers in bloom, have a texture. As the surface gets farther away from us this texture gets finer and appears smoother (Gibson, 1950).

A surface or field that recedes in depth has a texture that gets finer. That is very different from a wall where the surface is approximately the same distance from a person at all points. For example, imagine yourself standing and staring at a brick wall which, instead of receding in depth like a cobblestone road, rises up in front of you. Here the texture, in this case the brick alternating with the mortar, will have about the same roughness all over the surface and provide a clue that the surface does not recede in depth. In addition, texture may play a role in helping us determine the size of an object. Regardless of how far an object is away from us, it covers roughly the same amount of surface, and thus texture, which can help us determine the actual size of an object (Gibson, 1950).

7. Time

Time and space are intricately related concepts that find expression in visual messages. In one sense, time as a depth cue refers to the first element a viewer sees in a frame. That picture will be in the foreground of the viewer’s mind, with other images seen later in the background.

8. Perspective

It is a complex depth perception cue due to cultural factor which comes into play each time we try to interpret depth. However, Perspective, in the context of vision and visual perception, is the way in which objects appear to the eye based on their spatial attributes, or their dimensions and the position of the eye relative to the objects.

As objects become more distant, they appear smaller, because their angular diameter (visual angle) decreases. Perspective is also seen in the way the parallel lines of how railway tracks appear to be meeting at a distant point (the vanishing point) on the horizon. When used in this sense, the 'horizon' is always at the level of the viewer's eye. Because the Earth is round, the true horizon (the line dividing the surface and the sky) is lower than this level. The difference is imperceptibly small when standing on the surface, but noticeable from great height (a person standing on a mountain can see further than someone at ground level).

According to Evelyn Hatcher, there are three major forms of perspective which she details in her book Visual Metaphors: A Methodological Study in Visual Communication. These are as follows:
Illusionary Perspective: An illusionary perspective can be achieved through size, colour, lighting, interposition, and linear perspective. When you stand on a railroad track and look down the ties, the steel rails seem to converge into a single area, or vanishing point, in the distance. This trait of parallel lines when seen at a distance is called linear perspective. This aspect of illusionary perspective that provides the illusion of three dimensional depth in a painting or a photograph is what artists were trying to duplicate with the aid of Leonardo box and camera obscura.

Geometrical Perspective: In geometrical perspective the artist shows near figures in the lower portion of the picture and objects farther away higher in the frame on a vertical line above the near object. This type of perspective is common among traditional Japanese and Mayan artwork. Children often exhibit this type of perspective in their drawings.

Conceptual Perspective: Conceptual perspective is compositional trait that relies on a more symbolic definition of depth perception than the other types of perspective. It can be divided into two types: multi-view and social. With the multi-view perspective, a viewer can see many different sides of an object at the same time. The picture is often an X-ray, or transparent, view of the object. Near objects overlap far objects only by the outside edges or lines that make up their shapes. Pablo Picasso liked to use this type of perspective. In social perspective the most important person in a group picture, a government or corporate leader, is larger in size than other, less important people. A viewer often assumes power relationships because of social perspective. In a picture of a couple the man’s dominance over the woman often is signified by the man being nearer and larger in the frame with his hand resting on or arm wrapped around the woman’s shoulder. Over the past three decades, the feminist movement has made advertisers and others more sensitive to nonverbal negative stereotypes such as these.

Depth

‘8’ Depth cues

1. Interposition
2. Space
3. Size
4. Colour
5. Lighting
6. Textural gradient
7. Time
8. Perspective

Many representational visual texts give a very strong feeling of depth despite the fact that they are painted on flat surfaces that lack any depth.

In trying to depict depth, there are several restrictions on the techniques that an artist can use. First, most visual texts, like paintings, drawings, illustrations, and photographs, are two-dimensional. There is no actual depth in the artwork so one must understand, at least intuitively, what information is in the environment that allow us to perceive depth. These sources of information are commonly called depth or distance cues.

A consequence of the two-dimensional nature of painting and pictures is that we lose all the depth information that comes from the fact that we have two eyes. These binocular, or two-eye, depth cues require true depth and thus we will not discuss them in context with conventional visual texts. For example, there is the binocular depth cue called disparity. Disparity arises from the fact that our two eyes have a slightly different view of the world. To allow you to see disparity requires either real depth or two images developed as if from different positions like our eyes.

The artist, in trying to paint or draw, is, therefore, limited to depth cues that (a) need no more than one eye to work, and (b) do not require a moving world. Fortunately there are a collection of such depth cues, a subset of monocular cues called pictorial cues by some authors (Goldstein, 1989).

The first depth cue to be discussed here is interposition which is the partial blocking of a more distant object by a nearer object. Note how the the building is blocked by the girls. Infact, if you notice the kid behind the girls on your right is partially blocking the building too. But, it is the girls who land up blocking him too. Thus creating an illusion as to what is in the background and what is in the front. It is the interposition, overlap, that causes the sense of depth to arise. Usually the impression of depth caused by interposition alone is not very strong.

Notice the foreground figures of two girls with partially blocked figures of other two taking a piggy ride, which are all that are important for our present purposes. Here relative size and even relative height play little role in giving the depth order of the various figures (all the figures are roughly the same level and same size). Shadowing plays an important role in giving each of the figures their sense of three-dimensionality, but to tell who is in what position relative to another, the principle cue is interposition.

There is a lot of space behind the girls suggesting they are far from the buildings. The water is in the background and the wet girls suggest they had been in the water previously.

Movement

•The girls have moved fro near the water to the position they are in now.

Where was the picture made? What do u think was its purpose?

• The picture seems to be clicked in some Afro-American suburb.
• It could have been taken to accompany a feature article on the summer heat.

Personal Perspective

• What do I think of the visual?
• Omniphasism “All in Balance”
• Rick Williams philosopher, photographer & educator at the University of Oregon
• Theory that combines the rational and intuitive aspects of the mind.

Omniphasism was thought of by Rick Williams, a philosopher, photographer, and educator at the University of Oregon develop the theory Omniphasism. It’s a theory that attempts to combine the rational and intuitive aspects of the mind into a balanced whole. William uses 8 steps for analyzing a visual message, using his Omniphasism tech called a “personal Impact Assessment”

What is my first emotional response to the visual? Do I like it? Dislike it? How do I feel about the image?

Its a picture of teenage girls who have just played in
water. It’s pleasant to look at.

Personal Impact Assessment

“Part of the idea of going from primary words to associative words to significant words is to move away from Literal interpretation of the photo to a symbolic understanding of it." ~ Rich Williams

Personal Impact Assessment

8 Steps:

1. Take time with the image
2. List Primary Words
3. List associative words
4. Select the most important associative words
5. Pair primary and associative words
6. Relate each pair to yourself
7. Review your inner symbolism
8. Write a story

Take time with the Image

• Does the story Stimulate or Alienate?

Its an isolated moment that rests on composition.

• What is the story or message?

Some girls played in the water to beat the heat.

List Primary Words

• Visual Cues
• Objects
• Feelings

Primary words

• Group of 4 girls
• Water
• Sun
• Old buildings
• Light shade clothes

List Associative Words

Observe each primary word and link it to your thought.

One must write down all words that come to ones mind on reading each of the primary words.

Associative words

• Group of 4 girls : happy, wet, Afro American
• Water: Hose pipe, Fire hydrant
• Sun: Summer, heat, daytime
• Old buildings: poor neighbourhood
• Happy : cool, relaxed

Select the most important associative words

Among the associative words one word would be closest to its primary word underline or select that word. This is the most important associative word.

Choose one word out of the associative words for each primary
word.

Pair Primary and Associative words

Write the primary and most important associative word together.

• Group of 4 girls : Afro American
• Water: Fire hydrant
• Sun: Summer-heat
• Old buildings: poor neighbourhood
• Happy : cool

Relate each pair to Yourself

Make note of the thoughts that come to your mind on viewing each pair of words.

What does each pair suggest?

• Group of 4 girls : Afro american poor
• Water: Fire hydrant wet, sultry
• Sun: Summer-heat scorcher
• Old buildings: poor neighborhood unaffordability of luxury
• Happy : cool relief

Review your Inner Symbolism

See if the conclusions drawn from the pairs link to any conflict, event, emotion, value or feeling.

• List inner conflicts, emotions, values or feelings

The summer heat is hard to bear . Water is natures boon
to mankind

Write a story

Add up all your thoughts and write a summary or a story. What is the story in the image?

A group of Afro-American girls decide to cool of in the
summer heat by playing with some water from a fire hydrant.

Historical Perspective

• When do you think was the image made?

In the 1980’s or after.

• Is there a specific style that the image imitates?

The historical perspective helps to understand current trends in terms of their roots in technology and philosophies of the past. Where did the image come from? What was the setup at that time? What is the background of the image? these questions help us to infer meanings.

Technical Perspective

One can evaluate the production techniques. Has the producer used the technology at hand to its best in generating the message? Has it aided in delivering the message as intended effectively.

• What medium has been used?

film

• What techniques were employed?

A street shot clicked without the subject noticing it
been taken

• How was it produced?

With an SLR camera

• Is it of good quality?

yes (look at grain size, gama, composition, content, shutter speed etc.)

Ethical Perspective

This is the moral and ethical analysis of the visual. It applies to both the viewer and the producer of the visual.

Categorical Imperative

• Immanuel Kant, German philosopher from the east principality of KÖnisberg 18th Century
• Categorical (unconditional / without exception)
• “Right is Right”
• Do your duty

The right thing must be done under even the most extreme conditions. Once a rule is established for a proposed action or idea, behavior and actions must be consistently applied and always in accordance with it. One does his/ her duty.

In the ethics of the 18th-century German philosopher Immanuel Kant, founder of critical philosophy, a moral law that is unconditional or absolute for all agents, the validity or claim of which does not depend on any ulterior motive or end. “Thou shalt not steal,” for example, is categorical as distinct from the hypothetical imperatives associated with desire, such as “Do not steal if you want to be popular.” For Kant there was only one such categorical imperative, which he formulated in various ways. “Act only according to that maxim by which you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law” is a purely formal or logical statement and expresses the condition of the rationality of conduct rather than that of its morality, which is expressed in another Kantian formula: “So act as to treat humanity, whether in your own person or in another, always as an end, and never as only a means.”

Utilitarianism

• Jeremy Bentham & John Stuart Mill (British Philosophers)
• Belief: “The greatest good for the greatest number of people”
• Analysis of the consequence : Outcome must do good to most people

In ethics, a tradition stemming from the late 18th- and 19th-century English philosophers and economists Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill that an action is right if it tends to promote happiness and wrong if it tends to produce the reverse of happiness—not just the happiness of the performer of the action but also that of everyone affected by it. Utilitarianism is an effort to provide an answer to the practical question “What ought a man to do?” Its answer is that he ought to act so as to produce the best consequences possible. Eg: A gruesome image must be published or printed only if it would evoke a positive reaction in maximum of the viewers.

Hedonism

Hedonism is the philosophy that pleasure is of ultimate importance, the most important pursuit. The name derives from the Greek word for "delight".

• A student of Socrates, Aristippus founded this ethical philosophy on the basis of pleasure.
• Aristippus believed that people should “act to maximize pleasure” now and not worry about the future.
• He referred to intellectual pleasure not physical.
• Pleasures of the mind
• “I Possess I am not Possessed”
• Aesthetic pleasure that we get out of a picture

Golden Mean (Finding a compromise b/w the two extreme points of an action or view.

In philosophy, especially that of Aristotle, the golden mean is the desirable middle between two extremes, one of excess and the other of deficiency.

To the Greek mentality, it was an attribute of beauty. Both ancients and moderns realized that "there is a close association in mathematics between beauty and truth". The poet John Keats, in his Ode on a Grecian Urn, put it this way:

Beauty is truth, truth beauty, that is all
Ye know on earth, and all ye need
to know.

The Greeks believed there to be three concomitants of beauty: symmetry, proportion, and harmony. This triad of principles infused their life. They were very much attuned to beauty as an object of love and something that was to be imitated and reproduced in their lives, architecture, Paideia and politics. They judged life by this mentality.

Golden Rule

• “Love your neighbor as yourself”
• Be humane do not harm others by your actions

The Golden Rule which stems from ethic of reciprocity is a fundamental moral value which "refers to the balance in an interactive system such that each party has both rights and duties, and the subordinate norm of complementarity states that one's rights are the other's obligation." In essence, it is an ethical code that states one has a right to just treatment, and a responsibility to ensure justice for others. Reciprocity is arguably the most essential basis for the modern concept of human rights, though it is not without its critics.

Many assign the imperative commandment of Golden Rule as instruction for a positive only form of reciprocity. A key element of the golden rule is that a person attempting to live by this rule treats all people, not just members of his or her in-group with consideration. The golden rule, with roots in a wide range of world cultures, is well suited to be a standard to which different cultures could appeal in resolving conflicts. Principal philosophers and religious figures have stated it in different ways.

Veil of Ignorance

John Rawls (1971) “Put the shoe on the other foot.

• All people are equal
• Eliminating all prejudice and discrimination

The original position is a hypothetical situation developed by American philosopher John Rawls as a thought experiment to replace the imagery of a savage state of nature of prior political philosophers like Thomas Hobbes. In social contract theory, persons in the state of nature agree to the provisions of a contract that defines the basic rights and duties of citizens in a civil society. In Rawls's theory, Justice as Fairness, the original position plays the role that the state of nature does in the classical social contract tradition of Thomas Hobbes, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, and John Locke.

The original position figures prominently in his book, A Theory of Justice, and it is one of the most influential ideas in twentieth-century philosophy. It has influenced a variety of thinkers from a broad spectrum of philosophical orientations. As a thought experiment, the original position is a hypothetical designed to accurately reflect what principles of justice would be manifest in a society premised on free and fair cooperation between citizens, including respect for liberty, and an interest in reciprocity.

Questions to be asked while analysing a visual from Ethical / Moral Perspective... as per Dr Demi Elliot Poynter Jamison, chair, Media Ethics & Press Policy at the University of South Florida at St. Petersberg.

1. Does the taking and displaying of the picture fit the social responsibility of the professional involved?

2. Has any ones rights been violated in taking and displaying the picture?

3. Does the display of the image meet the needs of the viewer?

4. Is the picture aesthetically appealing?

5. Does the picture choice reflect moderation?

6. Does the professional choice reflect empathy for the subjects experience?

7. Could a professional justify the choice if he/she didn’t know which of the parties (subject, shooter or viewer) he/ she would turn out to be?

8. Does the visual Image cause unjustified harm

Cultural Perspective

• Identify the Symbols used, and
• Determine their Meaning for the society as a whole.
• What is the story and the symbolism involved with the elements in the visual message?
• What do they say about current cultural values?

(It is related to the semiotic process) The story revolves around the Afro-American people in the United States of America. Historically, the country has been dominated by a settler society of religiously and ethnically diverse Whites. The heaviest burdens of racism in the country have fallen upon Native Americans, Asian Americans, African Americans, Latin Americans and some other immigrant groups and their descendants.

Major racially structured institutions include slavery, Indian reservations, segregation, residential schools (for Native Americans), and internment camps. Racial stratification has occurred in employment, housing, education and government. Formal racial discrimination was largely banned in the mid-20th century, and it came to be perceived as socially unacceptable and/or morally repugnant as well, yet racial politics remain a major phenomenon as witnessed during the 44th Presidential Elections.

Racist attitudes, or prejudice, are still held by moderate portions of the U.S population. Members of every American ethnic group have perceived racism in their dealings with other groups.

Critical Perspective

An analysis of a visual to arrive at a 'Rational', 'Objective' and 'Thoughtful' Conclusion.

What is my final opinion about the picture?

How does my current view differ from the previous?

Conclusion

“Analysis is ego-driven. The main thing is that it always reveals the person making the analysis -- not really the piece itself˝ ~ David Lodge

It’s a cyclic process.

You will find below four images. You may undertake a visual analysis, based on what you have learnt so far:

The Post-Production Process Editing… “Invisible Art”

Editing is an art of structuring (at times re-structuring, i.e. re-directing) a narrative for the purpose of seemless flow of a convincing story. Editing is executed by connecting two or more shots together to form a sequence, and the subsequent connecting of sequences to form an entire movie / television program. This process is the only art that is unique to cinema / television, and which separates film & Television making from all other art forms that preceded it (such as photography, theatre, dance, writing, and directing. However there exists close parallels to the editing process in other art forms such as poetry or novel writing. It is often referred to as the "invisible art," since the idea, under most cicumstances, is to have the viewer engaged with the narrative that he or she becomes unaware of the work of the editor.

Since, almost every motion picture, television show, and TV commercial is a single camera shoot (per take), each single shot is separated from the other by time and space. On its most fundamental level, video editing is the art, technique, and practice of assembling these shots into a coherent whole. However, the job of an editor isn’t merely to mechanically put pieces of a film together, nor is it to just cut off the film or video slates, nor is it merely to edit dialogue scenes. A film editor works with the layers of images, the story, the music, the rhythm, the pace, shapes the actors' performances, "re-directing" and often re-writing the film or video during the editing process, honing the infinite possibilities of the juxtaposition of small snippets of clips into a creative, coherent, cohesive whole.

Editing, be it film or video, is an art that can be used in diverse ways. It can create sensually provocative montages. It can be a laboratory for experimental genre. It can bring out the emotional truth in an actor's performance. It can create a point of view on otherwise obtuse events. It can guide the telling and pace of a story. It can create the illusion of danger where there is none, surprise when we least expect it, and a vital subconscious emotional connection to the viewer.

Please note, if anybody is under illusion that this is only true for fiction genre and not applicable to documentary and other features including cutting for news format is wrong.

Television and film use certain common conventions often referred to as the 'grammar' of these audiovisual media. This list includes some of the most important conventions for conveying meaning through particular camera and editing techniques (as well as some of the specialised vocabulary of film production). Conventions aren't rules: expert practitioners break them for deliberate effect, which is one of the rare occasions that we become aware of what the convention is.

1.Cut. Sudden change of shot from one viewpoint or location to another. On television cuts occur on average about every 5 or 6 seconds. Cutting may:
•change the scene;
•compress time;
•vary the point of view; or
•build up an image or idea.

There is always a reason for a cut, and you should ask yourself what the reason is. Less abrupt transitions are achieved with the fade, dissolve, and wipe. In a cut, the first frame of a new shot directly follows the last frame of the previous one. Grammatically, a cut is like the space between two words: a division between units of meaning that signals no change at all.

In classic editing, a cut should be nearly invisible because the action on screen moves across the division between shots in an uninterrupted flow. This enhances the illusion that the viewer is watching a continuous process instead of a bunch of discrete images.

Creating this illusion is easy when the shots show different subjects, such as close-ups of two different actors, because the viewer expects the image to change completely from shot to shot. But when two shots cover successive views of the same subject you must spackle the seam with two crucial editing techniques: matching action and changing camera angle.

In matching action you set the edit points so that the incoming shot picks up precisely where the outgoing shot leaves off. There are three ways to do this: continue movement, cut between movements, and start or end off-screen.

Cutting in the middle of an ongoing movement is the hardest method but it delivers the most convincing illusion. In the outgoing shot of Figure 1a, the cup descends part-way to its saucer. Then the incoming shot starts with the cup on-screen and continues on its path toward the table. With precision matching, the two arcs seem like different views of the same continuous action. You can match continuous action with consumer-level editing decks if you're willing to practice with the deck's accuracy.

An easier way is to make the cut during a pause in the action, as shown in Figure 1b. Here, the performer completes the whole set-down in medium shot and the close-up starts with the hand and the cup at rest. With no movement to match, the edit is easier.

Simpler yet is the old off screen ploy (Figure 1c). The incoming shot starts before the cup enters the frame, so the viewer cannot compare its end position with its start position. With this method, you don't have to match action at all.

The method works equally well if you reverse it so that the outgoing cup ends on-screen and the incoming cup starts off-screen. And when you have a really difficult edit, try both at once: finish the outgoing and start the incoming shots with empty screens.

Whichever method you use, matching action does only half the job of concealing the cut. To perfect the illusion you must also shift the camera position. By moving the point of view, you change the subject's background and deprive the viewer of reference points for matching action.

As we've often noted, you can change three aspects of camera setup: vertical angle (from bird's-eye down to worm's-eye), horizontal angle (from front through 3/4 and profile to rear) and image size (from long shot to close-up). Figure 2 shows why it's tough to conceal a cut without changing at least one of these aspects and preferably two.

Figure 2a shows no angle change between the two shots and the obvious jump cut that results. Figure 2b changes one aspect: image size. If you're a slick editor you can make this cut work, but it's easier if you can change a second aspect as well. In Figure 2c the edit changes vertical angle as well as image size for a smoother transition.

Should you change all three aspects of a camera position? Maybe, but not necessarily. It doesn't add to the illusion and it can actually call attention to the edit because the viewpoint change is so great. On the other hand, an extreme angle change can be effective in building suspense precisely because it produces an effect of uneasiness or even disorientation.

Editing cuts

Match Cut (Description): Combining two shots of differing angle and composition so that the action continues from one to the other in the same time and place.

This shows seamless progression of action, focus on detail of action, provide a different view enhancing three- dimensionality, and add energy and increase pacing. The shot above could be followed by a close up of the hands.

Jump Cut: Combining two shots (see both b&w images) above that are similar so that the subject jumps from one part of the screen to another. It attracts attention and speeds up time.

Cutaway: it shows the subject, close up detail or person observing action (see above). Subject is not seen in shots edited before or after cutaway. This is done to cover jump cuts, provide reaction of others to main action, focus attention on subject.

Editing Transitions & Effects

Fade from and to Black: the image gradually appears from a black screen. Fade to black: image gradually disappears to a black screen.the purpose is to begin and end a video, it could be a transition between segments or scenes, or signify major change in time or location.

Dip to Black: A quick fade to black and then back to video. To go to or from a commercial break, quick transition between segments or scenes, or transition between footage and full screen graphics.

Dissolve: A transition between shots where one image is gradually mixed with another until the second image is full screen. To enhance emotions, soften changes between shots, accentuate rhythm of pacing, enhance artistry of action, and smooth jump cuts.

Wipe: A transition between shots that uses movement across the screen. Traditional wipes include changing the image with a move from right or left, up or down, or diagonally. Effects wipes include spins, flips, and animated moves. To show obvious transition between scenes, segments or graphics; add energy and action and increase pacing.

Super: Mixing two images together to show two views of subject at the same time, suggesting that main subject is thinking about the other.

Freeze: A single frame of video that is frozen on the screen to end action, accentuate moment or character, background for graphics, lengthen short shot.

Editing - Graphics & Titles

Lower Third Title: Text appearing in the bottom third of the screen. It identifies the name and title of interview subject, provide caption for image.

Full Screen Graphicit’s a combination of text, background or artwork that fills the screen. For titles in the beginning of a video or a segment, key points or summations, charts and graphs, transition between segments or to or from commercials.

Some Terms often used by Editors

B-roll: It refers to footage that covers an interview or narration audio. It is done to Illustrate what's discussed in audio, add energy and increase pace, cover audio track edits. For example -someone talks, scenes relating to what the person is saying is shown.

Establishing the scene: It’s a wide shot showing setting, to introduce the location for scene, provide sense of 3D space where action occurs, introduce characters. Example -All the shots are wide showing people doing things

Changing the scene/segment: It is a Visual or audio cue that a new scene or segment has begun. It moves the story along, add variety to story, indicate passage of time or change in location. for example an establishment shot (with people talking). Followed by the main person talking.

Visual Sequence: it features a series of shots showing the subject or a process in action. To focus attention on action or process, show details of, show progression of action, engage viewer with subject and to facilitate comprehension. Example -a person applying make-up

Montage Sequence: A series of images, usually set to music, that quickly show various aspects of the story. It shows passage of time, provide a glimpse of actions or events not covered in detail, capture viewer interest at beginning of video, sum up story at end, provide a change of pace, add energy.

Natural Sound: It includes ambient sounds of subjects overheard during recording. To enhance sense of reality, capture spontaneous speech of subject in the natural situation, establish the setting or situation, show transition between scenes or locations, provide background sound to narration.

Reference: All material is assembled from the following sites.

• http://www.personal.kent.edu/~lhanson/grammar.htm
• http://www.aber.ac.uk/media/Documents/short/gramtv.html